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Question 61
Which type of attack involves intercepting and potentially altering communication between two parties without their knowledge?
( A ) Phishing
( B ) Man-in-the-Middle
( C ) SQL Injection
( D ) Denial-of-Service
Answer: B
Explanation:
A Man-in-the-Middle (MITM) attack is a type of cyberattack in which an adversary secretly intercepts, monitors, or manipulates communication between two parties, often without either party realizing that the interaction has been compromised. Unlike phishing attacks, which rely on tricking users into voluntarily disclosing sensitive credentials, SQL injection, which targets vulnerabilities in database queries, or denial-of-service attacks, which aim to overwhelm systems with traffic, MITM attacks specifically target the confidentiality and integrity of communications. Attackers conducting MITM attacks can capture sensitive information, including login credentials, financial transactions, personally identifiable information, or proprietary business data, potentially leading to identity theft, financial loss, or intellectual property theft.
MITM attacks commonly exploit insecure network environments, such as public Wi-Fi networks, poorly configured routers, or compromised network infrastructure. Techniques employed by attackers include HTTPS spoofing, where secure connections are faked; ARP poisoning, which redirects network traffic through the attacker’s device; and DNS spoofing, which manipulates domain name resolution to redirect users to malicious sites. These attacks can remain undetected for extended periods, allowing attackers to gather significant amounts of sensitive information or inject malicious content into legitimate communications.
Preventing MITM attacks requires a combination of technical controls and user awareness. Strong encryption protocols, including TLS, and proper certificate management help ensure that communication channels are secure and cannot be intercepted or altered. Certificate pinning adds an extra layer of trust by ensuring clients only accept specific, trusted certificates. Multi-factor authentication reduces the risk of credential compromise, even if an attacker captures login data. Virtual private networks (VPNs) provide secure tunnels over untrusted networks, and continuous network monitoring can detect unusual patterns indicative of interception attempts.
Organizations should implement layered security strategies, combining intrusion detection systems, regular vulnerability assessments, and strict configuration of PKI and TLS infrastructure. Educating users about the dangers of unsecured networks and the importance of verifying trusted connections is equally essential. By understanding MITM attack vectors and deploying comprehensive safeguards, organizations can maintain secure communications, preserve data integrity, and reduce the risk of sensitive information exposure in both enterprise and public network environments.
Question 62
Which authentication method relies on unique biological traits to verify identity?
( A ) Password-Based Authentication
( B ) Biometric Authentication
( C ) Token-Based Authentication
( D ) Certificate-Based Authentication
Answer: B
Explanation:
Biometric authentication is a security method that verifies a user’s identity by analyzing unique physiological or behavioral traits, including fingerprints, facial features, iris patterns, voice, or even gait. Unlike password-based authentication, which depends on something a user knows and can be stolen, guessed, or compromised, biometric authentication relies on characteristics that are inherently unique to each individual. Similarly, it differs from token-based authentication, which requires possession of physical devices or software tokens, and certificate-based authentication, which uses digital certificates and cryptographic keys for verification. The intrinsic uniqueness of biometric traits makes them a strong form of authentication, providing both security and convenience in verifying identities.
Biometric systems are increasingly integrated into a wide range of devices and environments, such as mobile phones, laptops, secure workstations, physical access control systems, and financial transaction verification. This integration enhances user convenience by reducing dependence on memorized passwords or physical tokens while offering fast and seamless authentication. Despite these advantages, biometric data is highly sensitive and must be stored securely, typically using encryption or secure enclaves, to prevent theft, misuse, or unauthorized replication. Compromise of biometric information can have long-lasting consequences since unlike passwords, biometric traits cannot be changed easily.
The security of biometric systems can be further enhanced by implementing multi-factor authentication, which combines biometrics with passwords, tokens, or other verification methods, adding additional layers of protection. Proper deployment also requires careful calibration of sensors, regular software updates, and consideration of environmental factors, such as lighting conditions for facial recognition or moisture for fingerprint scanners, to ensure accurate and reliable authentication. Organizations adopting biometric systems must also address potential threats such as spoofing, replay attacks, and adversarial manipulation. Compliance with data privacy regulations and standards is critical, requiring clear policies for collection, storage, and processing of biometric information.
Question 63
Which type of malware disguises itself as legitimate software to trick users into executing it?
( A ) Trojan
( B ) Worm
( C ) Ransomware
( D ) Spyware
Answer: A
Explanation:
A Trojan is a form of malicious software that disguises itself as legitimate applications, files, or utilities to trick users into executing it on their systems. Unlike worms, which are self-replicating programs that spread autonomously across networks, or ransomware, which encrypts user data to demand payment, and spyware, which silently gathers sensitive information, Trojans primarily rely on deception and social engineering to infiltrate devices. They often arrive through seemingly harmless email attachments, fake software updates, pirated applications, or compromised websites. Once installed, Trojans can perform a wide range of malicious activities, including creating hidden backdoors to allow unauthorized remote access, stealing usernames and passwords, logging keystrokes, capturing screenshots, or downloading and executing additional malware onto the system.
The stealthy and adaptable nature of Trojans makes them particularly dangerous. They can remain undetected for long periods, allowing attackers to maintain persistence within compromised systems. Preventing Trojan infections requires a multi-layered security approach. Maintaining up-to-date operating systems, applications, and security patches is crucial to close vulnerabilities that Trojans might exploit. Endpoint protection software, including antivirus and anti-malware programs, can identify known Trojans using signature-based detection methods, while heuristic analysis and behavioral monitoring help detect previously unknown variants based on suspicious activities. Network monitoring and intrusion detection systems can also help identify unusual traffic patterns indicative of Trojan activity.
User awareness plays a critical role in prevention. Organizations should educate employees on recognizing social engineering tactics, verifying the legitimacy of downloads and attachments, and avoiding untrusted sources. Regular security training can reinforce safe computing habits and reduce the risk of human error, which is often the entry point for Trojans.
Question 64
Which security control focuses on reducing the time to detect and respond to cybersecurity incidents?
( A ) Preventive Control
( B ) Detective Control
( C ) Corrective Control
( D ) Compensating Control
Answer: B
Explanation:
Detective controls are security measures that focus on identifying and monitoring security events and incidents as they occur or shortly after they take place. Their primary purpose is to provide visibility into ongoing activities, detect anomalies, and alert organizations to potential security breaches, enabling timely investigation and response. Unlike preventive controls, which are designed to stop incidents before they occur, detective controls do not inherently prevent attacks. Similarly, they differ from corrective controls, which act to remediate or repair damage after a security event has taken place, and from compensating controls, which provide alternative safeguards when primary controls are insufficient. Detective controls serve as a crucial layer in a comprehensive security strategy by ensuring that security events are quickly identified and appropriately managed.
Common examples of detective controls include intrusion detection systems that monitor network traffic for signs of malicious activity, log monitoring that tracks system and application events for suspicious behavior, and security information and event management (SIEM) platforms that aggregate and analyze data from multiple sources to detect potential threats. Other examples include anomaly detection tools, security audits, and continuous monitoring systems, which provide insights into unusual patterns or deviations from established baselines. These tools help organizations identify breaches, malware infections, unauthorized access, or policy violations before they escalate into significant incidents.
For detective controls to be effective, they require ongoing tuning and maintenance. This includes updating detection rules, calibrating thresholds to reduce false positives, and ensuring integration with broader incident response plans. Combining automated alerts with human analysis enhances the accuracy of detection and allows security teams to prioritize and respond to incidents more effectively.
Question 65
Which network security mechanism monitors, filters, and controls inbound and outbound traffic based on predefined rules?
( A ) Firewall
( B ) Router
( C ) Proxy Server
( D ) Load Balancer
Answer: A
Explanation:
A firewall is a critical network security tool designed to monitor, filter, and control incoming and outgoing traffic based on an organization’s predefined security policies. Its primary function is to allow legitimate communications while blocking potentially harmful or unauthorized traffic between networks, thereby acting as a gatekeeper for network security. Unlike routers, which focus on directing data packets to their intended destinations, proxy servers, which function as intermediaries between clients and servers, or load balancers, which optimize traffic distribution for performance, firewalls are specifically engineered to enforce security rules and protect network integrity.
Firewalls can be implemented in various forms, including hardware appliances, software applications, or cloud-based services, each tailored to specific network environments and organizational needs. They employ multiple filtering techniques to scrutinize network traffic. Packet filtering examines headers such as IP addresses, ports, and protocols to make allow-or-deny decisions. Stateful inspection adds an additional layer by tracking the state and context of network connections, ensuring that only legitimate traffic associated with active sessions is permitted. More advanced firewalls, often referred to as next-generation firewalls, can analyze traffic at the application layer, identifying specific applications, enforcing user-based policies, and detecting threats embedded within content.
The effectiveness of a firewall depends heavily on proper configuration, continuous monitoring, and timely updates. Misconfigured rules or outdated systems can create vulnerabilities that attackers may exploit. Firewalls are often integrated with intrusion detection and prevention systems to enhance security visibility, allowing organizations to detect and respond to suspicious activity in real time.
Question 66
Which type of attack exploits a vulnerability in web applications by injecting malicious scripts into trusted websites?
( A ) Cross-Site Scripting
( B ) SQL Injection
( C ) Man-in-the-Middle
( D ) Denial-of-Service
Answer: A
Explanation:
Cross-Site Scripting, commonly referred to as XSS, is a prevalent web application vulnerability that occurs when attackers inject malicious scripts into web pages that are subsequently rendered in the browsers of unsuspecting users. These scripts can execute within the context of a user’s session, allowing attackers to access sensitive information such as session cookies, authentication tokens, or other personal data. Unlike SQL Injection, which targets backend databases to extract or manipulate stored information, Man-in-the-Middle attacks, which intercept and modify communications between two parties, or Denial-of-Service attacks, which aim to disrupt availability, XSS primarily compromises confidentiality, integrity, and user trust within a web application.
XSS attacks are particularly insidious because they exploit the trust a user has in a legitimate website, often without requiring any direct interaction with the underlying server infrastructure beyond normal browsing behavior. Attackers can manipulate web page content, redirect users to malicious sites, or execute actions on behalf of the user without their consent. There are multiple types of XSS, including stored XSS, where malicious scripts are permanently stored on a server and delivered to multiple users, reflected XSS, where scripts are echoed back via URLs or form submissions, and DOM-based XSS, where the vulnerability exists in client-side code.
Mitigating XSS requires a combination of secure coding practices, rigorous testing, and proactive monitoring. Input validation ensures that only expected, safe data is processed, while output encoding transforms potentially dangerous characters into harmless representations before rendering them in the browser. Implementing Content Security Policies (CSP) can restrict which scripts are allowed to execute, adding an additional layer of protection. Modern web development frameworks provide libraries and built-in mechanisms to reduce the likelihood of XSS vulnerabilities, but continuous code reviews, automated security scans, and penetration testing are essential to identify new or overlooked weaknesses.
Question 67
Which attack uses numerous password attempts to gain unauthorized access to an account?
( A ) Brute Force
( B ) Phishing
( C ) Man-in-the-Middle
( D ) Keylogger
Answer: A
Explanation:
Brute force attacks are a type of cyberattack in which an attacker systematically attempts all possible password or credential combinations to gain unauthorized access to user accounts, systems, or applications. The attack relies primarily on computational power and persistence, often leveraging automated tools to rapidly test large numbers of potential passwords. Unlike phishing, which deceives users into voluntarily providing credentials through fraudulent emails or messages, Man-in-the-Middle attacks, which intercept communications between parties, or keyloggers, which secretly record keystrokes, brute force attacks do not rely on tricking the user but instead exploit weak or predictable authentication mechanisms.
There are different approaches to brute force attacks. Simple brute force involves testing every possible combination of characters within a password space. Dictionary attacks attempt to guess passwords using lists of commonly used words, phrases, or previously compromised credentials. More sophisticated attacks may combine dictionary and rule-based approaches, exploiting patterns such as substitutions, capitalization, or sequential numbers. Regardless of the method, the attack can be highly effective against accounts with weak, short, or reused passwords.
Mitigating brute force attacks requires a multi-layered approach. Enforcing strong password policies that mandate complexity, length, and uniqueness significantly reduces the likelihood of successful attacks. Account lockout policies and progressive delays after consecutive failed login attempts limit the number of guesses an attacker can make. Multi-factor authentication adds an additional security layer, requiring a second form of verification beyond just a password, which can render brute force attempts ineffective. Additional measures include rate-limiting login attempts, implementing CAPTCHA mechanisms to distinguish human users from automated scripts, and monitoring authentication logs to detect suspicious behavior.
Question 68
Which cryptographic technique converts plaintext into a fixed-length string that cannot be reversed to the original data?
( A ) Symmetric Encryption
( B ) Hashing
( C ) Asymmetric Encryption
( D ) Tokenization
Answer: B
Explanation:
Hashing is a cryptographic technique that transforms input data of any size into a fixed-length string, known as a hash or digest, in such a way that it is computationally infeasible to reverse the process and recover the original data. Unlike symmetric encryption, which uses the same key for both encryption and decryption, asymmetric encryption, which relies on public and private key pairs, or tokenization, which replaces sensitive information with surrogate values, hashing is inherently one-way. Once data is hashed, the original input cannot be reconstructed from the hash alone, making it an essential tool for verifying data integrity and securely storing sensitive information.
One of the most common applications of hashing is password storage. Instead of keeping plaintext passwords, systems store the hashed version. During authentication, the system hashes the user-provided password and compares it to the stored hash. Strong hashing algorithms, such as SHA-256, SHA-3, and bcrypt, are widely used because they are resistant to collisions, where two different inputs produce the same hash, and preimage attacks, where an attacker tries to deduce the original input from a hash. To further strengthen security, a process called salting is often applied. Salting involves adding unique random data to each input before hashing, which prevents attackers from using precomputed tables, such as rainbow tables, to reverse hashes.
Hashing also plays a critical role in verifying file integrity. By comparing the hash of a downloaded or transmitted file with the expected hash, users can ensure that the data has not been tampered with or corrupted. In blockchain technology, hashing ensures the immutability of data by linking blocks together through cryptographic digests, enabling trustless verification of transactions. Additionally, hashing is fundamental to digital signatures, message authentication codes, and various cryptographic protocols that rely on data integrity checks.
Effective implementation of hashing requires careful algorithm selection, proper management of salts, and adherence to current cryptographic standards. Organizations must periodically review and update hashing mechanisms to protect against evolving attack techniques. By providing a reliable, irreversible method of data transformation, hashing supports secure authentication, protects against tampering, and reinforces the overall security of digital systems.
Question 69
Which type of attack aims to capture sensitive data by logging keystrokes entered by the user?
( A ) Keylogger
( B ) Phishing
( C ) Malware Injection
( D ) Session Hijacking
Answer: A
Explanation:
Keylogger attacks are a type of cybersecurity threat in which malicious software or hardware secretly records every keystroke a user makes on a computer, smartphone, or other digital device. By capturing the precise input of the user, attackers can obtain highly sensitive information, including login credentials, personal identification numbers, credit card numbers, emails, and other confidential data. Unlike phishing, which relies on deceiving users into voluntarily providing information, malware injection, which exploits software vulnerabilities, or session hijacking, which takes control of active sessions, keyloggers directly monitor user input without immediate interaction or deception. This stealthy nature makes them particularly dangerous, as users are often unaware that their actions are being recorded.
Keyloggers can exist as software installed on a target system or as hardware devices physically connected to keyboards, USB ports, or other input peripherals. Software keyloggers can be distributed through malicious downloads, compromised websites, or infected email attachments, while hardware keyloggers require physical access and can be more challenging to detect. Because keyloggers operate silently, detection often requires specialized security tools, vigilant monitoring, and user awareness.
Mitigation strategies are multifaceted. Deploying comprehensive anti-malware and antivirus solutions is critical, as these programs can detect and remove known keylogger variants. Keeping operating systems and applications up to date reduces the risk of exploitation by keyloggers that rely on software vulnerabilities. Users should avoid downloading unknown files, clicking on suspicious links, or installing unauthorized applications. Multi-factor authentication provides an additional layer of security, ensuring that even if credentials are captured, unauthorized access is more difficult. For hardware keyloggers, implementing physical security controls, regularly inspecting devices, and securing access to endpoints are essential preventive measures.
Organizations should adopt a layered security approach that combines technical defenses, monitoring tools, and user education. Training users to recognize suspicious behavior, encouraging secure password practices, and maintaining robust endpoint protection can reduce the likelihood and impact of keylogger attacks. By proactively addressing this threat, businesses can safeguard sensitive data, maintain regulatory compliance, and enhance overall cybersecurity resilience, ensuring that confidential information remains protected from interception and misuse.
Question 70
Which network defense strategy isolates segments to limit lateral movement during an attack?
( A ) Network Segmentation
( B ) VLAN Hopping
( C ) Firewall Policies
( D ) Proxy Filtering
Answer: A
Explanation:
Network segmentation is a cybersecurity strategy that divides a network into smaller, isolated segments to enhance security, control traffic, and limit the potential impact of attacks. By creating distinct segments, organizations can prevent unauthorized lateral movement of attackers within the network, effectively containing breaches and reducing the risk of widespread compromise. Unlike VLAN hopping, which is a method attackers use to bypass network boundaries, firewall policies, which filter traffic based on rules, or proxy filtering, which manages web access, network segmentation focuses on proactively structuring the network to enforce security boundaries and protect critical assets.
Segmentation allows organizations to implement granular security controls, ensuring that users, devices, and applications only have access to the resources necessary for their function. It simplifies monitoring by isolating traffic flows, making it easier to detect anomalous behavior or malicious activity. This approach also minimizes the impact of malware, ransomware, or insider threats because compromised systems are contained within their respective segments. Techniques for achieving effective segmentation include the use of virtual local area networks (VLANs), subnets, internal firewalls, access control lists (ACLs), and advanced microsegmentation strategies that provide granular control over communication between workloads.
Beyond security, segmentation also supports regulatory compliance by separating sensitive data from less critical traffic, helping organizations meet standards such as PCI DSS, HIPAA, and GDPR. Successful network segmentation requires careful planning, including mapping assets, identifying critical systems, defining trust zones, and establishing strict access policies. Continuous monitoring is essential to ensure that segmentation boundaries are maintained, misconfigurations are avoided, and anomalies are promptly addressed.
By implementing network segmentation, organizations strengthen their defense-in-depth strategy. Even if one segment is compromised, other segments remain isolated and protected, significantly reducing potential damage. Segmentation also enhances operational efficiency by organizing network traffic logically and providing better visibility into resource usage. Overall, network segmentation is a foundational security practice that increases resilience, limits attack surfaces, and helps maintain the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of critical systems within an enterprise environment.
Question 71
Which security concept ensures that only authorized users have access to specific resources and actions?
( A ) Authentication
( B ) Authorization
( C ) Accounting
( D ) Auditing
Answer: B
Explanation:
Authorization is a fundamental aspect of information security that determines what actions a user, device, or system is allowed to perform within a network, application, or resource environment. It is distinct from authentication, which confirms the identity of a user, and from accounting or auditing, which focus on recording and reviewing user activities. Authorization specifically enforces access control policies, ensuring that users can only interact with resources they are permitted to use. By defining and managing these permissions, organizations can protect sensitive data, maintain operational integrity, and reduce the risk of unauthorized access or modifications.
Authorization mechanisms often rely on structured frameworks such as role-based access control (RBAC), where users are assigned roles with predefined privileges, or attribute-based access control (ABAC), which evaluates user attributes, environmental conditions, and resource characteristics to make dynamic access decisions. Policy-based access control is another approach that allows organizations to enforce granular rules that align with compliance requirements or business objectives. Implementing these techniques requires a clear understanding of organizational needs, resource classifications, and user responsibilities.
Effective authorization also depends on continuous management and review. Over time, users’ roles or responsibilities may change, creating the potential for privilege creep, where individuals retain access to resources no longer necessary for their duties. Regular audits, access reviews, and automated monitoring help detect and remediate such issues, ensuring that access rights remain appropriate. Combining authorization with authentication, logging, and real-time monitoring enhances the overall security posture by not only verifying identities but also controlling and tracking what users can do within the system.
Authorization plays a critical role in regulatory compliance, safeguarding sensitive information in sectors such as finance, healthcare, and government. Properly designed access controls limit insider threats, prevent data breaches, and ensure that operations are conducted within established security policies. By embedding authorization into system architecture and organizational processes, enterprises can maintain a controlled, secure environment where resources are protected, and users operate strictly within their intended scope, supporting both operational efficiency and cybersecurity resilience.
Question 72
Which type of social engineering attack involves tricking users into revealing confidential information via deceptive communications?
( A ) Tailgating
( B ) Phishing
( C ) Shoulder Surfing
( D ) Baiting
Answer: B
Explanation:
Phishing is a form of social engineering in which cybercriminals use deceptive communications to trick individuals into divulging sensitive information, such as login credentials, financial details, or personal data. The primary goal of phishing is to exploit human behavior rather than technical vulnerabilities, making it a highly effective attack vector. Unlike tactics such as tailgating, which involves physical unauthorized entry, shoulder surfing, which observes sensitive input directly, or baiting, which lures victims with physical media or incentives, phishing specifically manipulates users through digital channels. Attackers often craft emails, text messages, or fake websites that appear legitimate, leveraging elements of trust, urgency, curiosity, or fear to prompt immediate action.
Phishing attacks can take many forms. Spear phishing targets specific individuals or organizations with highly personalized messages designed to appear authentic. Whaling attacks focus on high-value targets such as executives, often using contextually relevant information to increase credibility. Clone phishing involves creating replicas of legitimate messages with malicious links or attachments substituted to compromise unsuspecting recipients. The sophistication of these techniques has grown, with attackers frequently combining social engineering tactics with malware, credential harvesting, or ransomware deployment.
Mitigating phishing attacks requires a combination of technical defenses and user education. Anti-phishing tools, email filters, and web security gateways help detect and block suspicious communications before they reach end users. Multi-factor authentication reduces the risk associated with compromised credentials, while continuous monitoring of account activity can identify abnormal behavior. Equally important is ongoing user training, including awareness programs, simulated phishing exercises, and guidance on recognizing suspicious emails, links, and attachments. Organizations must also maintain up-to-date threat intelligence to stay informed about emerging phishing trends and tactics.
Question 73
Which security principle ensures that systems continue to operate properly even under attack or failure?
( A ) Confidentiality
( B ) Integrity
( C ) Availability
( D ) Accountability
Answer: C
Explanation:
Availability is a fundamental component of cybersecurity that ensures systems, applications, and data remain accessible and operational when needed, even in the face of disruptions, attacks, or technical failures. Unlike confidentiality, which focuses on protecting sensitive information from unauthorized access, integrity, which ensures that data remains accurate and unaltered, or accountability, which tracks user actions and system events, availability emphasizes uninterrupted access to critical resources. The concept of availability is essential because even the most secure and accurate data is of little value if authorized users cannot access it when required.
Threats to availability can come from multiple sources. Denial-of-Service (DoS) and Distributed Denial-of-Service (DDoS) attacks are deliberate attempts to overwhelm network resources, rendering services inaccessible. Hardware failures, software bugs, configuration errors, and human mistakes can also cause service interruptions. Additionally, natural disasters, power outages, and environmental factors can compromise access to critical systems. The consequences of downtime can be severe, ranging from financial losses and reputational damage to operational paralysis, particularly in sectors like healthcare, finance, and critical infrastructure, where system availability can directly impact human safety or financial stability.
To maintain availability, organizations implement a variety of measures. Redundancy ensures that alternative systems or components can take over if the primary ones fail, while failover mechanisms allow seamless switching to backup systems. Regular backups and disaster recovery plans ensure that data and systems can be restored quickly after an outage. Load balancing distributes network or application traffic across multiple servers to prevent overload, and high-availability architectures are designed to minimize single points of failure. Continuous monitoring, alerting, and proactive maintenance help identify potential issues before they impact operations.
Question 74
Which protocol provides secure communication over the internet by encrypting data and authenticating parties?
( A ) HTTP
( B ) FTP
( C ) TLS
( D ) Telnet
Answer: C
Explanation:
Transport Layer Security (TLS) is a widely used cryptographic protocol designed to secure communication over the internet by providing encryption, authentication, and data integrity. Its primary purpose is to ensure that information transmitted between two parties—such as a client and a server—remains confidential and protected from interception or tampering. Unlike HTTP, which sends data in plaintext and is vulnerable to eavesdropping, or FTP, which does not provide native encryption for file transfers, and Telnet, which transmits credentials and commands without security, TLS provides a secure channel that safeguards sensitive information during transit.
TLS operates by combining multiple cryptographic techniques. It uses public-key cryptography to establish secure key exchange between the communicating parties, ensuring that symmetric encryption keys used for the session remain confidential. Once the secure session is established, symmetric encryption is employed to efficiently encrypt the data being transmitted. Additionally, TLS incorporates message authentication codes to verify the integrity of transmitted data, detecting any unauthorized modifications or tampering. This combination of encryption, authentication, and integrity checking protects against eavesdropping, man-in-the-middle attacks, and other forms of network-based interception.
TLS is implemented in a variety of applications. The most common use is securing websites through HTTPS, which encrypts user interactions with web servers, protecting login credentials, financial transactions, and personal information. TLS is also used in secure email protocols, such as SMTPS, IMAPS, and POP3S, to protect messages during transmission. Virtual Private Networks (VPNs) can use TLS to create encrypted tunnels for remote access. Maintaining TLS security requires proper certificate management, including issuing, renewing, and revoking digital certificates, as well as enforcing strong cryptographic algorithms and regularly updating protocol versions to avoid vulnerabilities.
Transport Layer Security (TLS) is a widely used cryptographic protocol designed to secure communication over the internet by providing encryption, authentication, and data integrity. Its primary purpose is to ensure that information transmitted between two parties—such as a client and a server—remains confidential and protected from interception or tampering. Unlike HTTP, which sends data in plaintext and is vulnerable to eavesdropping, or FTP, which does not provide native encryption for file transfers, and Telnet, which transmits credentials and commands without security, TLS provides a secure channel that safeguards sensitive information during transit.
TLS operates by combining multiple cryptographic techniques. It uses public-key cryptography to establish secure key exchange between the communicating parties, ensuring that symmetric encryption keys used for the session remain confidential. Once the secure session is established, symmetric encryption is employed to efficiently encrypt the data being transmitted. Additionally, TLS incorporates message authentication codes to verify the integrity of transmitted data, detecting any unauthorized modifications or tampering. This combination of encryption, authentication, and integrity checking protects against eavesdropping, man-in-the-middle attacks, and other forms of network-based interception.
TLS is implemented in a variety of applications. The most common use is securing websites through HTTPS, which encrypts user interactions with web servers, protecting login credentials, financial transactions, and personal information. TLS is also used in secure email protocols, such as SMTPS, IMAPS, and POP3S, to protect messages during transmission. Virtual Private Networks (VPNs) can use TLS to create encrypted tunnels for remote access. Maintaining TLS security requires proper certificate management, including issuing, renewing, and revoking digital certificates, as well as enforcing strong cryptographic algorithms and regularly updating protocol versions to avoid vulnerabilities.
Question 75
Which security control aims to restore systems to normal operation after an incident occurs?
( A ) Preventive Control
( B ) Detective Control
( C ) Corrective Control
( D ) Compensating Control
Answer: C
Explanation:
Corrective controls are an essential component of an organization’s cybersecurity and risk management strategy, focusing on restoring systems, data, and processes to their normal state after a security incident or operational disruption. While preventive controls are designed to stop incidents from occurring, detective controls aim to identify incidents in real time or shortly after they occur, and compensating controls provide alternative safeguards when standard controls are not feasible, corrective controls specifically address recovery and remediation. Their primary purpose is to minimize the impact of incidents, reduce downtime, and ensure that operations can resume securely and efficiently.
Examples of corrective controls include restoring data from secure backups, reconfiguring or rebuilding compromised systems, applying patches to address exploited vulnerabilities, and updating security settings to prevent recurrence. These actions are typically guided by an organization’s incident response plan, disaster recovery plan, and business continuity procedures, ensuring that recovery efforts are systematic, coordinated, and aligned with organizational priorities. Corrective controls also involve analyzing the root causes of incidents to prevent future occurrences, often resulting in updates to preventive measures, policies, and training programs.
Question 76
Which type of malware encrypts user files and demands payment to restore access?
( A ) Trojan
( B ) Ransomware
( C ) Worm
( D ) Spyware
Answer: B
Explanation:
Ransomware is a type of malicious software designed to deny users access to their own data or systems by encrypting files and demanding a ransom payment to restore access. Unlike Trojans, which disguise themselves as legitimate applications to trick users into installation, Worms, which spread autonomously across networks, and Spyware, which quietly collects sensitive information, ransomware primarily aims to extort money or leverage from victims. Its impact can be severe, often disrupting critical operations, causing significant financial losses, and damaging the reputation of affected organizations. Modern ransomware variants have evolved to include sophisticated tactics such as double extortion, where attackers not only encrypt data but also steal sensitive information and threaten its public release if demands are not met, adding pressure on victims to comply.
Ransomware typically infiltrates systems through multiple vectors. Phishing emails with malicious attachments or links remain a common method, exploiting human behavior and trust. Other avenues include compromised software downloads, drive-by downloads from malicious websites, and exploitation of unpatched vulnerabilities in operating systems, applications, or network services. Once inside the network, ransomware can propagate laterally, targeting shared drives, backups, and critical infrastructure.
Mitigation strategies focus on prevention, detection, and recovery. Organizations should maintain up-to-date endpoint protection, enforce strong patch management policies, and educate employees on recognizing suspicious emails and links. Regularly tested backups stored offline or in immutable formats ensure data can be restored without paying a ransom. Network segmentation and access controls help contain the spread of ransomware, while comprehensive incident response plans, including tabletop exercises and drills, prepare organizations to act swiftly when attacks occur.
Question 77
Which concept refers to reducing system vulnerabilities by applying security patches and updates regularly?
( A ) Hardening
( B ) Encryption
( C ) Segmentation
( D ) Tokenization
Answer: A
Explanation:
System hardening is a comprehensive process aimed at enhancing the security and resilience of computer systems by minimizing vulnerabilities and reducing potential attack surfaces. It involves a combination of technical measures, configuration adjustments, and policy-driven practices to protect systems from exploitation. Unlike encryption, which primarily safeguards data in transit or at rest, segmentation, which isolates parts of a network to contain threats, or tokenization, which replaces sensitive data with non-sensitive equivalents, system hardening focuses on securing the systems themselves to prevent attackers from gaining unauthorized access or control.
The hardening process typically begins with applying all relevant security patches and updates to operating systems, applications, and firmware. These patches address known vulnerabilities that attackers might exploit, ensuring that the system operates with the latest protections. Disabling unnecessary services, daemons, and software reduces the number of entry points available to malicious actors. Similarly, removing default accounts and credentials, which often come with predictable passwords or excessive privileges, prevents unauthorized access through commonly exploited pathways.
Question 78
Which attack involves overwhelming a target system with excessive traffic to disrupt its normal operations?
( A ) SQL Injection
( B ) Denial-of-Service
( C ) Cross-Site Scripting
( D ) Man-in-the-Middle
Answer: B
Explanation:
Denial-of-Service (DoS) attacks are malicious attempts to make a network, system, or service unavailable to its intended users by overwhelming it with excessive traffic or resource requests. Unlike SQL injection, which specifically targets database vulnerabilities, Cross-Site Scripting, which manipulates web application behavior, or Man-in-the-Middle attacks, which intercept communications between parties, DoS attacks primarily target the availability of systems, aiming to disrupt normal operations and cause service interruptions. These attacks can range from simple flooding techniques, which inundate a server with requests, to more sophisticated strategies that exploit specific protocol weaknesses or application vulnerabilities.
A more complex variant, Distributed Denial-of-Service (DDoS), leverages multiple compromised devices across the internet to generate massive amounts of traffic toward a target, significantly amplifying the attack’s impact. This distributed nature makes DDoS attacks more difficult to mitigate because blocking a single source does not resolve the problem, and the attack can consume significant network bandwidth, server resources, and application capacity. The consequences of such attacks can be severe, including downtime of critical services, financial losses, reputational damage, and disruption to essential infrastructure.
Question 79
Which authentication factor is based on something the user has, such as a smart card or hardware token?
( A ) Knowledge Factor
( B ) Possession Factor
( C ) Inherence Factor
( D ) Location Factor
Answer: B
Explanation:
Possession factors are a type of authentication mechanism that relies on something the user physically owns to verify their identity. This can include items such as smart cards, hardware tokens, key fobs, or mobile authentication devices. Unlike knowledge factors, which depend on information the user knows, such as passwords or PINs, inherence factors that use unique biological traits like fingerprints or facial recognition, or location factors that authenticate users based on their geographical location, possession factors provide a tangible, physical component to identity verification. By requiring a physical object, possession-based authentication introduces an additional layer of security, making it more difficult for attackers to compromise accounts through remote attacks or credential theft alone.
Possession factors are commonly implemented as part of multi-factor authentication (MFA) strategies, where they are combined with knowledge or inherence factors. For example, a user might enter a password (knowledge) and then confirm their identity using a one-time code generated by a hardware token (possession). This combination ensures that even if one factor is compromised, unauthorized access remains difficult. Effective deployment of possession-based authentication requires careful management of the physical devices, including secure distribution, tracking, and timely revocation if a device is lost or stolen. Organizations must also ensure proper configuration to prevent bypass or replication of tokens.
Question 80
Which technique ensures sensitive data is replaced with surrogate values, making it unusable if exposed?
( A ) Encryption
( B ) Tokenization
( C ) Hashing
( D ) Masking
Answer: B
Explanation:
Tokenization is a data security technique that replaces sensitive information, such as credit card numbers, social security numbers, or other personally identifiable information, with non-sensitive surrogate values known as tokens. These tokens retain the format of the original data but are meaningless to unauthorized users, so even if intercepted or exposed, they cannot be used to reconstruct the original information. Unlike encryption, which transforms data into a secure format that can later be decrypted, tokenization does not involve a reversible process in the token itself, making it inherently safer in certain contexts. Unlike hashing, which is irreversible but primarily used for verification, or data masking, which only obscures data for display purposes without protecting the underlying value, tokenization allows organizations to maintain the usability of data for legitimate business processes while protecting the original information from exposure.
Tokenization is widely applied in industries where sensitive information must be processed or stored, such as payment processing, healthcare, and financial services. For example, in payment systems, credit card numbers are replaced with tokens during transactions, and the mapping between the token and the actual card number is securely stored in a central, encrypted token vault. This ensures that the real data is not transmitted or stored in insecure environments, significantly reducing the risk of breaches and fraud. Tokenization also helps organizations limit the scope of regulatory compliance frameworks such as PCI DSS or GDPR, since the tokenized data is considered non-sensitive in many contexts.
Effective implementation of tokenization requires careful management of token generation, secure mapping to original data, controlled access to the token vault, and strong encryption of stored mappings. Organizations should integrate tokenization with logging, auditing, and continuous monitoring to detect unauthorized access attempts and ensure compliance with security policies. By adopting tokenization, organizations can reduce the risk of data leakage, prevent fraud, maintain data integrity, and protect customer information, all while supporting operational processes without compromising security. When combined with other security measures, tokenization forms a key part of a layered, defense-in-depth approach to safeguarding sensitive data.
