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Question 101
Which of the following BEST describes the primary function of an IDS in a network?
(A) Encrypting sensitive data
(B) Detecting suspicious network activity
(C) Blocking unauthorized traffic automatically
(D) Scanning endpoints for malware
Answer: B
Explanation:
An Intrusion Detection System (IDS) is a critical component in modern cybersecurity strategies, designed to monitor network traffic and system activity to identify signs of suspicious or potentially malicious behavior. Unlike an Intrusion Prevention System (IPS), which actively intervenes to block or mitigate threats, an IDS primarily focuses on detecting anomalies and alerting administrators so that appropriate actions can be taken. By analyzing network packets, traffic flows, and system logs, an IDS provides organizations with visibility into activities that could indicate security breaches or policy violations.
IDS solutions employ a variety of detection techniques to identify threats. Signature-based detection relies on predefined patterns of known attacks, enabling the system to quickly recognize familiar threats such as malware, exploits, or unauthorized access attempts. Anomaly-based detection, on the other hand, establishes a baseline of normal network or system behavior and flags deviations from that baseline, which can indicate novel or previously unknown attack methods. Some advanced IDS solutions also incorporate heuristic analysis and machine learning algorithms to improve detection accuracy and reduce false positives.
It is important to differentiate IDS functionality from other security measures. Encrypting sensitive data, while essential for protecting information confidentiality, is not a function of IDS. Similarly, the active blocking of malicious traffic is a feature of IPS rather than IDS. Endpoint malware scanning is handled by endpoint protection platforms, which operate differently from network-based monitoring systems. IDS complements these technologies by providing a monitoring layer that enhances situational awareness and informs response strategies.
Proper deployment of an IDS involves careful network placement, tuning of detection rules, and integration with security information and event management (SIEM) systems to correlate alerts and provide actionable insights. This enables security teams to respond to threats promptly, investigate suspicious activities, and strengthen the overall security posture of the organization. By offering real-time monitoring, detailed logging, and advanced analytics, IDS serves as an essential tool within a layered defense strategy, ensuring that potential intrusions are detected early and mitigated effectively before they can escalate into significant security incidents.
Question 102
Which of the following is the MOST secure method for storing passwords?
(A) Plaintext in a configuration file
(B) Hashed and salted
(C)Base64-encoded
(D) Encrypted using reversible encryption
Answer: B
Explanation:
Hashing passwords with a salt is widely recognized as one of the most secure methods for storing user credentials. Hashing is a cryptographic process that converts a password into a fixed-length string, known as a hash, which cannot be reversed to reveal the original password. This one-way transformation ensures that even if a database is compromised, attackers cannot directly recover the plaintext passwords. However, using hashing alone is insufficient because attackers can leverage precomputed tables, known as rainbow tables, to match common hashes with corresponding passwords. This is where salting becomes crucial.
A salt is a unique, randomly generated value that is added to each password before hashing. By combining the password with a different salt for every user, even identical passwords produce completely different hash values. This prevents attackers from using the same hash to crack multiple accounts and renders rainbow tables ineffective. Each user’s password hash becomes unique, requiring attackers to compute brute-force attacks individually for every account, significantly increasing the time and resources required to compromise passwords.
Alternative methods of password storage are less secure. Storing passwords in plaintext directly exposes them if the database is breached, allowing attackers immediate access to all accounts. Base64 encoding is not a security measure but a reversible method of representing binary data in text, which offers no protection against malicious actors. Reversible encryption provides a degree of security, but it depends entirely on the secrecy of the encryption key; if the key is stolen, all passwords can be decrypted, creating a critical vulnerability.
Best practices for secure password storage involve using strong, modern cryptographic hashing algorithms such as bcrypt, Argon2, or PBKDF2. These algorithms are designed to be computationally intensive, slowing down brute-force attacks, and they work best when combined with unique salts for every password. Implementing these techniques protects user credentials, reduces the likelihood of unauthorized access, and mitigates the potential impact of data breaches. Secure password storage is a foundational aspect of cybersecurity, ensuring the integrity and confidentiality of user accounts across any organization’s systems.
Question 103
Which of the following BEST mitigates the risk of phishing attacks?
(A) Conducting user awareness training
(B) Implementing SIEM
(C) Using RAID for storage
(D) Deploying VLANs
Answer: A
Explanation:
Phishing attacks are a common type of social engineering threat that take advantage of human behavior to gain access to sensitive information, such as login credentials, financial data, or personal identification. Attackers craft deceptive emails, websites, or messages that appear to come from legitimate sources, often using urgent language, fake logos, or spoofed email addresses to convince victims to act quickly without thinking. These attacks can lead to account compromise, financial loss, data breaches, and reputational damage for both individuals and organizations.
One of the most effective defenses against phishing is user awareness training. Educating employees on how to identify suspicious messages, verify sender authenticity, avoid clicking unknown links, and refrain from downloading unexpected attachments significantly reduces the likelihood of successful attacks. Training programs often include simulated phishing campaigns, allowing employees to practice recognizing threats in a controlled environment, reinforcing good habits, and helping organizations measure and improve their security posture over time.
While technical controls play a complementary role, they alone are insufficient to fully prevent phishing. For example, Security Information and Event Management (SIEM) systems can detect anomalies and suspicious activity within networks, but they cannot stop users from providing credentials to a fraudulent site. Similarly, RAID provides data redundancy for storage, protecting against hardware failure but not human-targeted attacks, and VLANs segment networks to isolate traffic but do not prevent users from interacting with phishing emails or websites.
Comprehensive phishing mitigation involves a layered approach that combines both technical and human-centered measures. Email filtering systems, authentication standards like DMARC, SPF, and DKIM, and web protection tools help reduce the number of phishing messages that reach users. At the same time, ongoing education ensures that employees remain vigilant and capable of recognizing and reporting potential threats. By empowering users with knowledge and reinforcing secure behaviors, organizations create a strong first line of defense, minimizing the risk of successful phishing attacks and protecting critical assets, sensitive data, and overall business continuity.
Question 104
A system administrator wants to ensure sensitive data is protected while stored on endpoints. Which of the following is the BEST solution?
(A)Full-disk encryption
(B) Network segmentation
(C) VPN configuration
(D) Web filtering
Answer: A
Explanation:
Full-disk encryption is a critical security measure that ensures all data stored on a device is transformed into an unreadable format, accessible only to those who possess the correct authentication credentials. By encrypting the entire storage medium, organizations can protect sensitive information from unauthorized access, particularly in scenarios where a device is lost, stolen, or otherwise compromised. This form of encryption operates at the hardware or operating system level, making it highly effective in safeguarding data at rest, as every file, system configuration, and temporary data stored on the device is secured automatically.
Unlike network segmentation, which divides a network into smaller zones to reduce the risk of lateral movement during an attack, full-disk encryption specifically protects the data stored on endpoints and servers. Similarly, while virtual private networks (VPNs) encrypt data in transit to secure communications over untrusted networks, they do not address the risk of data being accessed directly from a stolen or lost device. Web filtering, on the other hand, controls which websites users can access to prevent exposure to malicious content but provides no protection for local data stored on the system. Full-disk encryption directly addresses the risks associated with data exposure on the device itself, offering an essential layer of protection that complements other security controls.
Implementing full-disk encryption solutions, such as BitLocker for Windows or FileVault for macOS, requires integrating robust authentication mechanisms and effective key management policies. Only authorized users with the correct credentials can decrypt and access the data, which helps prevent unauthorized access even if the physical device falls into the wrong hands. Organizations must also ensure proper procedures for key backup and recovery, monitoring for compliance, and maintaining up-to-date endpoint security to maximize the effectiveness of encryption.
Full-disk encryption is especially important for organizations handling regulated or sensitive data, as it helps meet compliance requirements under frameworks such as GDPR, HIPAA, and PCI-DSS. Beyond regulatory adherence, encrypting devices reinforces organizational trust by reducing the risk of sensitive data exposure, mitigating potential financial and reputational damage. By integrating full-disk encryption into a comprehensive security strategy, businesses can maintain confidentiality, protect critical assets, and strengthen overall data protection measures against both accidental and malicious threats.
Question 105
Which of the following BEST describes a zero-trust architecture?
(A) Trust all internal users by default
(B) Verify and authenticate every access request regardless of location
(C) Eliminate the need for firewalls
(D) Rely solely on VPN for security
Answer: B
Explanation:
Zero-trust architecture is a modern cybersecurity model that fundamentally changes how organizations approach network security by assuming that no user, device, or system should be inherently trusted, regardless of whether it originates inside or outside the corporate network. Unlike traditional security models that rely on perimeter defenses and implicitly trust users within the internal network, zero trust enforces strict verification of every access request. Each request is authenticated, authorized, and continuously evaluated based on multiple factors, including user identity, device security posture, location, and the sensitivity of the requested resource. This continuous verification helps prevent unauthorized access and reduces the risk of security breaches caused by compromised credentials or insider threats.
Contrary to zero-trust principles, trusting all internal users by default introduces significant security risks, as it allows attackers who gain access to the internal network to move laterally without restriction. Similarly, eliminating firewalls would weaken the network’s defense mechanisms rather than strengthen it, and relying solely on virtual private networks (VPNs) provides only a secure connection without ensuring ongoing verification of user activity or device compliance. Zero-trust architecture integrates multiple layers of controls to address these gaps, including strong multi-factor authentication, role-based access control, device compliance checks, and micro-segmentation, which isolates workloads and limits lateral movement within the network.
Continuous monitoring and analytics are also essential components of zero trust. By actively tracking user behavior, device health, and network activity, organizations can detect anomalies that might indicate malicious activity or policy violations. This proactive approach allows for immediate response to potential threats, significantly reducing the likelihood of successful cyberattacks.
Implementing zero trust not only enhances security but also supports regulatory compliance by ensuring that access to sensitive data is tightly controlled and auditable. It mitigates risks associated with credential compromise, insider threats, and advanced persistent attacks while maintaining operational efficiency. By minimizing implicit trust and enforcing granular access controls, zero-trust architecture creates a resilient security framework that protects both organizational assets and user data against increasingly sophisticated cyber threats, making it a critical strategy for modern enterprise cybersecurity.
Question 106
Which of the following BEST describes a rainbow table attack?
(A) Using precomputed hash values to crack passwords
(B) Intercepting credentials during transmission
(C) Flooding a network to disrupt services
(D) Exploiting buffer overflow vulnerabilities
Answer: A
Explanation:
A rainbow table attack is a specialized form of cryptographic attack that targets hashed passwords to gain unauthorized access to user accounts or sensitive systems. This attack relies on precomputed tables containing hash values for a vast number of potential passwords. When an attacker obtains a database of password hashes, they can quickly compare each hash against the entries in a rainbow table to find a match, effectively reversing the hash back into the original plaintext password. This approach allows attackers to bypass the computational effort of brute-forcing each password individually, making it a highly efficient method for cracking weak or commonly used passwords.
Unlike rainbow table attacks, intercepting credentials in transit, such as capturing login data over an unsecured network, is characteristic of a man-in-the-middle attack. Similarly, flooding a network with excessive traffic to disrupt service is known as a denial-of-service attack, while exploiting buffer overflows targets software vulnerabilities to execute arbitrary code. These are distinct attack vectors that differ from the specific objective and methodology of rainbow table attacks, which focus on breaking cryptographic hashes offline.
Mitigating rainbow table attacks involves making each password hash unique, which is achieved through the use of salts. A salt is a random value added to a password before it is hashed, ensuring that even identical passwords result in different hash values. This renders precomputed rainbow tables ineffective because the table would need to include hashes for every possible combination of password and salt, which is computationally infeasible. Additionally, using strong, complex passwords increases the difficulty of cracking attempts, while employing modern, computationally intensive hashing algorithms like bcrypt, Argon2, or PBKDF2 further strengthens resistance to such attacks.
The significance of rainbow table attacks lies in their demonstration of how attackers exploit predictable cryptographic weaknesses. Organizations must combine proper hashing techniques, salting, secure password policies, and robust key management to protect user credentials. By doing so, they can defend against offline attacks, prevent unauthorized access, and ensure the overall security and integrity of sensitive systems and personal data.
Question 107
Which of the following BEST ensures data integrity during transmission?
(A)Hashing
(B) Firewall
(C) VLAN
(D) Backup
Answer: A
Explanation:
Hashing is a critical technique in information security that ensures the integrity of data by generating a fixed-length value, known as a hash, which is uniquely derived from the original data. This hash acts as a fingerprint for the data, allowing recipients to verify whether the information has been altered during transmission or storage. When data is sent from one party to another, the sender can calculate the hash of the original data and transmit it alongside the data itself. The recipient then recalculates the hash of the received data and compares it to the transmitted hash. If the values match, the data is confirmed to be intact; if they differ, it signals that the data may have been tampered with or corrupted, either accidentally or through malicious activity.
Unlike firewalls, which filter network traffic to block unauthorized access, or VLANs, which logically segment networks for organizational or security purposes, hashing does not control access but instead focuses on verifying the correctness and integrity of information. Similarly, backups are primarily used to restore data after loss or corruption but do not prevent or detect integrity violations during the initial transmission or ongoing storage. Hashing provides a proactive mechanism to ensure that any unauthorized or accidental modifications are detectable.
Modern cryptographic hash functions, such as SHA-256 or SHA-3, are designed to produce hashes that are computationally infeasible to reverse, meaning the original data cannot be derived from the hash. When combined with digital signatures, hashing also supports authenticity verification, ensuring that the data comes from a trusted source and has not been altered in transit. This is particularly important in contexts such as secure communications, software distribution, financial transactions, and regulatory compliance, where data integrity is paramount.
By implementing hashing as part of a broader security strategy, organizations protect against threats ranging from transmission errors to deliberate tampering. It reinforces trust in information systems by providing assurance that the data remains accurate, consistent, and reliable throughout its lifecycle. Hashing, therefore, serves as a foundational element in maintaining the integrity and reliability of critical information.
Question 108
Which of the following BEST describes a brute-force attack?
(A)Attempting all possible combinations to guess credentials
(B) Exploiting input validation vulnerabilities
(C) Sending emails to trick users
(D) Injecting malicious SQL commands
Answer: A
Explanation:
A brute-force attack is a method used by attackers to gain unauthorized access to accounts, encrypted data, or cryptographic keys by systematically trying every possible combination until the correct one is found. This type of attack exploits the predictability of weak passwords or encryption keys and relies heavily on computational power. While simple passwords may be cracked within seconds, longer and more complex passwords can make brute-force attempts take years or even decades, depending on available processing resources. Unlike attacks such as SQL injection, which exploit vulnerabilities in input validation, or phishing, which manipulates human behavior to obtain credentials, brute-force attacks are purely computational and methodical in nature, targeting the strength of the authentication mechanism itself.
The effectiveness of a brute-force attack is directly influenced by password complexity, length, and randomness. Weak passwords, dictionary words, or commonly reused credentials make systems particularly vulnerable. Similarly, cryptographic systems using short keys can be brute-forced more easily. To mitigate this risk, organizations implement strategies such as enforcing strong password policies, requiring a mix of upper- and lower-case letters, numbers, and special characters, and using long passwords that increase entropy. Account lockout policies and rate-limiting login attempts are also effective, as they slow down attackers and make repeated attempts impractical.
Multi-factor authentication (MFA) adds an additional layer of security by requiring something the user possesses, such as a token or smartphone confirmation, alongside their password, rendering brute-force attacks much less effective. The use of password managers to generate and store complex, random passwords further enhances security by eliminating predictable or reused passwords. Monitoring login activity is another essential component, allowing administrators to detect patterns consistent with brute-force attempts and respond quickly to potential breaches.
Question 109
Which of the following BEST describes the role of a honeypot in cybersecurity?
(A) Diverting attackers to a decoy system
(B) Encrypting user communications
(C) Monitoring user compliance with policies
(D) Blocking malware execution
Answer: A
Explanation:
A honeypot is a security mechanism that acts as a decoy system intentionally designed to attract cyber attackers and malicious activity. Its primary purpose is to provide a controlled environment where security teams can observe and analyze attacks without putting production systems or sensitive data at risk. By simulating vulnerable services, applications, or network configurations, honeypots can deceive attackers into engaging with them, allowing organizations to study attack patterns, techniques, and tools in real time. This intelligence is invaluable for understanding the tactics, techniques, and procedures (TTPs) employed by threat actors, enabling more effective defenses and proactive cybersecurity measures.
Honeypots can be categorized as low-interaction or high-interaction systems. Low-interaction honeypots provide limited services and basic emulation of vulnerabilities, which reduces the risk of the honeypot being fully compromised while still collecting useful data on attacker behavior. High-interaction honeypots, on the other hand, replicate real systems more comprehensively, allowing attackers to interact with the environment in more depth. This approach provides richer intelligence about sophisticated attacks, including malware deployment, lateral movement, and command-and-control communication. However, high-interaction honeypots require careful monitoring and containment to prevent the decoy from being used as a launchpad for further attacks.
Unlike traditional security controls such as encrypting communications, monitoring compliance, or deploying antivirus solutions, which primarily defend or enforce policy, honeypots are designed to proactively gather threat intelligence. They play a crucial role in incident response, threat hunting, and improving security infrastructure by revealing gaps or weaknesses that attackers may exploit. Data collected from honeypots can inform intrusion detection systems, firewall rules, and vulnerability management programs, enhancing overall network resilience.
Implementing honeypots also helps organizations train security analysts, test response procedures, and anticipate attacker behavior before real systems are targeted. By strategically deploying honeypots, organizations gain insights into emerging threats, improve detection capabilities, and strengthen overall cybersecurity posture while reducing the risk of future attacks. This makes honeypots a valuable component of a comprehensive security strategy.
Question 110
Which of the following is the MOST secure method for remote access to a corporate network?
(A) VPN with strong encryption
(B) Telnet
(C) FTP
(D) HTTP
Answer: A
Explanation:
A Virtual Private Network (VPN) is a technology that creates a secure, encrypted connection, often referred to as a tunnel, between a remote device and a corporate or private network. This encrypted tunnel ensures that data transmitted over potentially untrusted networks, such as public Wi-Fi or the internet, remains confidential and protected from interception or eavesdropping. VPNs also maintain data integrity, ensuring that information cannot be altered or tampered with during transmission, and provide authentication to verify that both the user and the network endpoints are legitimate. This combination of confidentiality, integrity, and authentication makes VPNs a critical component in modern cybersecurity strategies, particularly for organizations supporting remote work, mobile employees, or geographically dispersed offices.
In contrast, legacy protocols such as Telnet, FTP, and HTTP transmit information, including usernames, passwords, and sensitive data, in plaintext. Telnet, commonly used for remote command-line access, exposes credentials directly on the network, making it highly vulnerable to interception. FTP, used for file transfers, similarly lacks encryption, allowing attackers to capture login information and transferred files. HTTP, the standard protocol for web traffic, also sends data unencrypted, which can be intercepted by attackers performing man-in-the-middle attacks. Because these protocols do not provide confidentiality or integrity protections, they are unsuitable for transmitting sensitive information over untrusted networks.
Modern VPN implementations use strong cryptographic protocols such as IPSec or SSL/TLS to establish secure tunnels. IPSec VPNs operate at the network layer and provide comprehensive security for IP traffic, while SSL/TLS-based VPNs function at the transport layer, often through web browsers, offering flexible and secure access to internal applications. When combined with multi-factor authentication, VPNs ensure that only authorized users can access corporate resources. Organizations can also enforce access policies, monitor connections, and restrict traffic based on roles or device compliance.
By encrypting data in transit and validating user and device identities, VPNs significantly reduce the risk of data breaches, credential theft, and unauthorized access. They are essential for securing remote work, protecting sensitive communications, and maintaining organizational trust, making them a foundational tool in enterprise cybersecurity.
Question 111
Which of the following BEST describes multifactor authentication (MFA)?
(A) Using a single strong password
(B) Requiring multiple forms of verification from independent categories
(C) Authenticating using only biometric data
(D) Authenticating based on IP address
Answer: B
Explanation:
Multifactor authentication (MFA) is a robust security mechanism designed to strengthen access control by requiring users to verify their identity through multiple independent factors. These factors typically fall into three categories: something the user knows, such as a password or PIN; something the user has, such as a hardware token, smart card, or mobile authenticator app; and something the user is, such as a fingerprint, facial recognition, or other biometric identifiers. By combining two or more of these factors, MFA ensures that even if one factor is compromised, attackers are unlikely to gain unauthorized access, thereby significantly reducing the risk of breaches.
Relying solely on a single strong password is no longer sufficient to defend against modern threats. Phishing campaigns, credential stuffing attacks, and brute-force attempts can easily compromise passwords, making single-factor authentication inadequate. Similarly, using only biometric authentication, while convenient, presents limitations because biometric data can potentially be spoofed or bypassed, and unlike passwords, it cannot be changed if compromised. Authenticating based solely on IP addresses is also insecure, as IPs can be spoofed, dynamically assigned, or accessed remotely, providing little assurance of a legitimate user’s identity.
Implementing MFA has become a critical best practice for securing corporate networks, cloud applications, and sensitive systems. It not only protects against unauthorized access but also helps organizations meet regulatory and compliance requirements such as PCI-DSS for payment card security, HIPAA for healthcare data, and GDPR for personal data privacy. MFA solutions are versatile and can be deployed using various methods, including hardware tokens, software-based authenticator apps, SMS or email codes, and biometric devices. These methods can integrate with enterprise identity management systems, Single Sign-On platforms, and other access control frameworks, allowing organizations to maintain both security and user convenience.
Question 112
Which of the following BEST protects a network from unauthorized external scanning and reconnaissance?
(A) Firewall
(B) VPN
(C) Antivirus software
(D) Password policy
Answer: A
Explanation:
A firewall is a critical network security device that monitors and regulates both incoming and outgoing traffic according to a set of predefined security rules. Its primary purpose is to establish a barrier between trusted internal networks and untrusted external networks, such as the internet, thereby preventing unauthorized access, malicious activity, and reconnaissance attempts. Firewalls can detect and block port scans, unusual traffic patterns, and other probing activities designed to map network resources before an attacker can exploit them. This proactive filtering helps reduce the risk of successful intrusions and strengthens the overall security posture of an organization.
Unlike VPNs, which provide encrypted tunnels for secure communication between remote clients and networks but do not inherently block or filter malicious traffic, firewalls are specifically designed to enforce access policies and detect potential threats at the network perimeter. Similarly, antivirus software protects individual devices from malware and viruses but does not provide a network-wide defense against scanning or reconnaissance. Strong password policies improve authentication security but have no direct effect on monitoring or restricting network traffic. Firewalls thus serve as the first line of defense against network-based attacks by controlling access and monitoring for suspicious activity.
Firewalls can be deployed in various forms, including packet-filtering firewalls, which examine individual packets for source and destination IP addresses, ports, and protocols; stateful firewalls, which track the state of active connections to determine the legitimacy of traffic; and next-generation firewalls (NGFWs), which integrate additional capabilities such as deep packet inspection, application-level filtering, and intrusion prevention systems. By designing firewall rules carefully, organizations can restrict unnecessary access, segment networks, and enforce policies that limit exposure to external threats.
Combining firewalls with logging and monitoring systems further enhances security by providing visibility into traffic patterns and enabling rapid detection of anomalies or reconnaissance attempts. Continuous monitoring allows security teams to identify suspicious behavior, investigate potential threats, and adjust firewall policies as needed. Overall, firewalls remain a foundational component of network security, helping organizations reduce attack surfaces, prevent unauthorized access, and strengthen defenses against reconnaissance and other pre-attack activities.
Question 113
Which of the following BEST describes social engineering in cybersecurity?
(A) Exploiting software vulnerabilities
(B) Manipulating humans to reveal confidential information
(C) Capturing encrypted traffic for analysis
(D) Performing denial-of-service attacks
Answer: B
Explanation:
Social engineering is a form of cyberattack that exploits human behavior and psychology rather than relying on technical vulnerabilities in systems. Attackers use manipulation, deception, and psychological tactics to trick individuals into revealing sensitive information, providing unauthorized access, or performing actions that compromise organizational security. These attacks often exploit emotions such as trust, fear, curiosity, or urgency, which can override rational decision-making. Common social engineering techniques include phishing emails that impersonate trusted entities, pretexting where attackers fabricate scenarios to gain confidential information, tailgating to gain physical access to restricted areas, and baiting, which involves offering something enticing to lure a victim into compromising security.
Unlike attacks that exploit software vulnerabilities, social engineering does not require technical expertise to breach defenses, making it particularly dangerous. Similarly, capturing encrypted traffic or performing denial-of-service attacks are technical in nature and target systems directly, whereas social engineering bypasses traditional security controls by focusing on the human element. This human-centric approach means even the most advanced firewalls, intrusion detection systems, and encryption methods can be ineffective if employees are manipulated into granting access or disclosing passwords.
Mitigating social engineering threats requires a combination of technical and procedural strategies. Security awareness training is essential, educating employees on recognizing phishing attempts, verifying the legitimacy of requests, and understanding the risks of oversharing information. Simulated phishing campaigns help reinforce these lessons in a controlled environment, allowing organizations to identify vulnerable individuals and address gaps. Strong authentication methods, such as multi-factor authentication, reduce the effectiveness of credential-based attacks, while clear reporting channels ensure that suspicious activity is escalated and addressed promptly.
Fostering a culture of vigilance is critical for long-term resilience. Employees must feel empowered to question unusual requests, confirm identities, and follow established security procedures without fear of reprisal. By combining awareness, technical safeguards, and proactive monitoring, organizations can significantly reduce their susceptibility to social engineering attacks, protecting sensitive data, intellectual property, and overall operational security. Social engineering mitigation is therefore not only about preventing isolated incidents but also about strengthening the overall security posture of the organization.
Question 114
Which of the following BEST describes the principle of least privilege?
(A) Giving all users full access to systems
(B) Restricting access rights to only what is necessary for job functions
(C) Allowing administrative access to everyone
(D) Removing all access restrictions
Answer: B
Explanation:
The principle of least privilege is a foundational security concept that restricts users, applications, and systems to only the access rights necessary to perform their specific functions. By limiting permissions, organizations reduce the likelihood of accidental or intentional misuse of sensitive information and critical resources. Granting excessive privileges, such as providing full access to all users or administrative rights to everyone, significantly increases security risks by expanding the potential attack surface and allowing malicious actors to exploit unnecessary access. Similarly, removing restrictions entirely creates an environment where unauthorized activities can occur unchecked, leaving critical systems and data vulnerable.
Implementing least privilege helps contain security incidents by limiting the extent of damage if an account or process is compromised. For example, if a standard user account is breached, the attacker cannot access sensitive administrative functions or unrelated systems, thereby reducing lateral movement within the network. This containment enhances overall organizational resilience and ensures that security breaches are easier to detect and mitigate.
Practical techniques for enforcing least privilege include role-based access control (RBAC), where permissions are assigned based on job functions rather than individuals; periodic user access reviews to ensure that privileges remain appropriate over time; segregation of duties, which prevents a single user from having conflicting responsibilities; and just-in-time privilege elevation, allowing temporary access for specific tasks without permanently granting high-level permissions. These measures ensure that access is dynamic, monitored, and tightly controlled.
The principle of least privilege is also critical for regulatory compliance and industry standards such as ISO 27001, NIST SP 800-53, and PCI-DSS, which emphasize limiting access to sensitive data and systems. Beyond compliance, it supports secure configuration management, incident response, and operational efficiency by providing clear accountability and traceability of user actions. By adhering to least privilege, organizations can strengthen their cybersecurity posture, minimize exposure to attacks, and ensure that sensitive information and critical resources are protected from both internal and external threats.
Question 115
Which of the following BEST describes the function of a SIEM system?
(A) Aggregates, analyzes, and correlates logs to detect security events
(B) Encrypts sensitive data in transit
(C) Scans endpoints for malware
(D) Blocks unauthorized network access
Answer: A
Explanation:
Security Information and Event Management (SIEM) systems collect logs and events from multiple sources, analyze patterns, and correlate data to detect anomalies, potential threats, and compliance violations. SIEM provides a centralized view of security incidents, enabling incident response teams to investigate and remediate threats efficiently. Option B, encrypting data, ensures confidentiality but does not provide event correlation. Option C, scanning endpoints for malware, is a function of endpoint protection solutions. Option D, blocking network access, is typically performed by firewalls or intrusion prevention systems. SIEM systems may use rule-based detection, anomaly detection, and threat intelligence feeds to identify malicious activity. They are essential for meeting regulatory requirements, conducting forensic investigations, and supporting proactive threat hunting. By aggregating and correlating diverse security data, SIEM enables faster detection of complex attack patterns, improving overall network resilience and organizational cybersecurity posture.
Question 116
Which of the following BEST mitigates SQL injection attacks?
(A) Input validation and prepared statements
(B) Encrypting databases
(C) Using RAID
(D) VPN deployment
Answer: A
Explanation:
SQL injection occurs when attackers insert malicious SQL commands into input fields to manipulate backend databases. Input validation ensures that user-supplied data conforms to expected formats, rejecting dangerous characters. Prepared statements or parameterized queries separate SQL logic from user input, preventing execution of injected commands. Encrypting databases (option B) secures data at rest but does not prevent SQL injection. RAID (option C) provides redundancy but does not protect against attacks. VPN deployment (option D) secures connections but does not mitigate SQL injection. Organizations should implement web application firewalls, code reviews, and secure development practices to complement technical safeguards. By enforcing input validation and prepared statements, applications remain resilient against SQL injection, protecting sensitive data, maintaining database integrity, and complying with regulations such as PCI-DSS.
Question 117
Which of the following BEST describes cross-site scripting (XSS)?
(A) Injecting malicious scripts into web pages viewed by users
(B) Exploiting buffer overflow vulnerabilities
(C) Overloading a network to cause denial of service
(D) Intercepting email communications
Answer: A
Explanation:
Cross-site scripting (XSS) attacks occur when attackers inject malicious scripts into web pages that are then executed in users’ browsers. This allows attackers to steal session cookies, perform actions on behalf of the user, or deliver malware. Option B, buffer overflows, exploit memory vulnerabilities. Option C, denial-of-service attacks, target availability. Option D, email interception, targets confidentiality. XSS can be mitigated using input validation, output encoding, secure coding practices, and Content Security Policy (CSP) headers. Protecting web applications against XSS is critical because it exploits trust between users and websites. Proper defenses prevent theft of credentials, session hijacking, and unauthorized access, preserving the integrity and trustworthiness of web services.
Question 118
Which of the following BEST describes the purpose of a digital certificate?
(A) To verify the authenticity of a public key
(B) To store passwords securely
(C) To encrypt files locally
(D) To monitor network traffic
Answer: A
Explanation:
A digital certificate binds a public key to an entity, verifying its identity and ensuring secure communications. Certificates are issued by trusted Certificate Authorities (CAs) and provide authenticity, integrity, and non-repudiation in cryptographic operations. Option B, storing passwords, is unrelated to certificates. Option C, local encryption, may use keys but does not require certificates. Option D, monitoring network traffic, is unrelated. Digital certificates enable secure HTTPS connections, email encryption, code signing, and VPN authentication. They use standards like X.509 and support asymmetric encryption, allowing public key verification without exposing private keys. Certificates are vital for trust in digital communications, ensuring that users connect to legitimate services and preventing man-in-the-middle attacks. Proper certificate management includes issuance, renewal, revocation, and secure storage to maintain the security and trustworthiness of cryptographic systems.
Question 119
Which of the following BEST describes a man-in-the-middle (MITM) attack?
(A) Intercepting and potentially altering communications between two parties
(B) Flooding a network to cause downtime
(C) Brute-forcing passwords
(D) Injecting malicious SQL commands
Answer: A
Explanation:
A man-in-the-middle (MITM) attack occurs when an attacker intercepts communications between two parties, potentially eavesdropping or altering the messages without detection. MITM attacks exploit insecure channels, weak encryption, or poorly validated certificates. Option B, flooding networks, describes denial-of-service attacks. Option C, brute-forcing passwords, is an attack on authentication. Option D, SQL injection, targets databases. Preventing MITM attacks requires strong encryption (e.g., TLS), certificate validation, VPNs, and secure key management. Proper mitigation protects data integrity, confidentiality, and trustworthiness of communications. Organizations should enforce HTTPS, use multi-factor authentication, educate users about phishing, and employ intrusion detection systems to reduce MITM vulnerabilities.
Question 120
Which of the following BEST describes the role of patch management in cybersecurity?
(A) Ensuring software vulnerabilities are identified and remediated promptly
(B) Encrypting data at rest
(C) Monitoring user activity
(D) Blocking unauthorized physical access
Answer: A
Explanation:
Patch management involves regularly identifying, testing, and applying updates to software and systems to remediate vulnerabilities that could be exploited by attackers. Unpatched systems remain susceptible to exploits, malware, and ransomware. Encrypting data (option B) secures stored information but does not address software vulnerabilities. Monitoring user activity (option C) provides insight into behavior but does not fix vulnerabilities. Blocking physical access (option D) protects assets but is unrelated to software security. Effective patch management requires inventorying assets, prioritizing critical updates, scheduling deployment, and verifying successful installation. It ensures systems remain secure, reduces attack surfaces, supports compliance with regulatory standards, and prevents breaches that could compromise sensitive data. Organizations with robust patch management policies significantly reduce the risk of compromise from known exploits.
