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Question 61
Which of the following best defines the concept of least privilege?
A) Users have access to all system resources by default
B) Access is granted only to the minimum resources necessary for a task
C) Administrators have unrestricted access to all systems
D) Access rights are granted based on user requests
Answer: B) Access is granted only to the minimum resources necessary for a task
Explanation:
The principle of least privilege (PoLP) is a fundamental security concept that emphasizes granting users, applications, and systems only the minimum level of access or permissions necessary to perform their assigned tasks. By restricting access to essential functions and data, organizations can reduce the likelihood of accidental errors, misuse of privileges, and the potential for privilege escalation attacks, in which attackers or malicious insiders gain elevated access to sensitive resources.
Implementing least privilege helps limit the impact of security breaches. If an account is compromised, an attacker’s capabilities are constrained to only what the account is permitted to do, reducing potential damage to critical systems and sensitive information. This approach also minimizes the organization’s overall attack surface, making it more difficult for threats to propagate across networks or gain access to confidential datA)
Organizations typically enforce least privilege using access control mechanisms such as role-based access control (RBAC), attribute-based access control (ABAC), access control lists (ACLs), and specialized privilege management tools. These systems define, monitor, and regulate permissions in alignment with users’ responsibilities and organizational policies. Dynamic access policies can further enhance security by adjusting permissions based on contextual factors, such as time of access, location, or device useD)
Regular access reviews, privilege audits, and monitoring are essential components of maintaining least privilege over time. As employees change roles, gain additional responsibilities, or leave the organization, permissions must be updated or revoked to prevent unnecessary access. Automation and centralized identity management systems can support these processes, ensuring compliance, reducing human error, and maintaining consistent enforcement across complex environments.
By strictly limiting access rights and continuously managing permissions, the principle of least privilege not only strengthens security posture but also supports regulatory compliance, operational integrity, and risk reduction. It is a proactive strategy for safeguarding sensitive assets and ensuring that only authorized users and processes can interact with critical resources.
Question 62
What is the main purpose of a digital signature in cybersecurity?
A) Ensuring confidentiality
B) Ensuring data integrity and authenticity
C) Encrypting large files
D) Managing digital certificates
Answer: B) Ensuring data integrity and authenticity
Explanation:
A digital signature is a cryptographic mechanism that allows recipients to verify the authenticity, integrity, and origin of a digital message, document, or transaction. By leveraging asymmetric cryptography, it ensures that a message has not been altered during transmission and that the sender can be confidently identifieD) The process involves a pair of cryptographic keys: a private key used by the sender to create the signature and a corresponding public key used by recipients to verify it. This system provides non-repudiation, meaning the sender cannot later deny having signed the data, which is critical for trust, accountability, and secure communications.
The creation of a digital signature begins with generating a hash of the original datA) This hash acts as a fixed-length digital fingerprint uniquely representing the content. The sender then encrypts this hash with their private key, creating the digital signature. When the recipient receives the message, their system uses the sender’s public key to decrypt the signature and obtain the original hash. Simultaneously, the recipient’s system generates a new hash of the received datA) If the decrypted hash and the newly computed hash match, it confirms both the integrity of the data and the authenticity of the sender. Any modification, even a single character change, would result in a mismatch, immediately indicating potential tampering or data corruption.
Digital signatures are widely used in securing emails, software distribution, financial transactions, and legal documents. They provide assurance that sensitive data has not been altered, prevent impersonation, and support regulatory and compliance requirements. By combining cryptographic integrity checks, identity verification, and non-repudiation, digital signatures play a vital role in modern digital communication and commerce, enabling secure interactions in environments where trust is paramount.
Question 63
Which type of malware replicates itself and spreads to other systems without user intervention?
A) Virus
B) Worm
C) Trojan
D) Spyware
Answer: B) Worm
Explanation:
A worm is a self-replicating type of malware that can spread automatically across networks and systems without requiring any user intervention. Unlike viruses, which rely on attaching themselves to legitimate files or programs, worms are standalone programs capable of exploiting vulnerabilities in operating systems, software applications, or network services to propagate. Once a worm becomes active, it can replicate rapidly, consuming network bandwidth, system resources, and storage, which can disrupt normal operations or, in severe cases, cause complete service outages.
Worms can have a variety of malicious objectives. Some are designed purely to spread and disrupt network performance, causing congestion and slowing down or overwhelming critical infrastructure. Others serve as delivery mechanisms for additional malware, such as ransomware, spyware, backdoors, or tools for creating botnets, which can be used for large-scale attacks including distributed denial-of-service (DDoS) campaigns. Their ability to propagate without human action makes worms particularly dangerous, as a single infected system can trigger widespread network infections within hours.
Historically, worms have caused significant global damage. The WannaCry worm in 2017 exploited a Windows SMB vulnerability to deploy ransomware across thousands of systems worldwide, leading to substantial operational and financial losses. SQL Slammer in 2003 infected vulnerable SQL servers, resulting in major Internet slowdowns in a matter of minutes. Other notable worms, such as Conficker and Blaster, highlighted how quickly network-based malware can spread and the importance of timely software patching and network defenses.
Preventing worm infections requires a combination of strategies, including keeping systems and applications up to date with security patches, deploying firewalls and intrusion detection systems, segmenting networks, and educating users about safe computing practices. Proactive monitoring and rapid response are essential to contain infections, limit damage, and maintain network resilience against these fast-propagating threats.
Question 64
Which of the following is an example of preventive control?
A) Security camera recording
B) Security awareness training
C) Antivirus software blocking malware
D) Log analysis
Answer: C) Antivirus software blocking malware
Explanation:
Preventive controls are proactive security measures designed to stop security incidents before they occur, forming the first and most critical layer of defense within an organization’s overall security strategy. Their primary purpose is to reduce vulnerabilities, limit opportunities for attackers, and prevent unauthorized access, misuse, or other malicious activities. By emphasizing prevention rather than reaction, these controls help maintain the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of information systems while minimizing the risk of operational disruptions or data breaches.
Examples of preventive controls span a wide range of technologies and policies. Antivirus and anti-malware software detect, quarantine, and block malicious files before they can execute, while firewalls control network traffic to prevent unauthorized users from reaching sensitive systems. Access control mechanisms, such as role-based access control (RBAC), attribute-based access control (ABAC), and multi-factor authentication (MFA), ensure that only authorized users can access specific resources, applications, or datA) Strong password policies and regular credential management further reinforce these access restrictions.
Encryption is another critical preventive measure, protecting sensitive data from interception or unauthorized disclosure during storage or transmission. Additionally, secure software development practices, patch management, and system hardening reduce vulnerabilities in applications and operating systems, minimizing the attack surface available to potential intruders. Security awareness training for employees also serves as a preventive control, educating users on recognizing phishing attempts, avoiding risky behavior, and following organizational security policies.
When effectively implemented, preventive controls not only reduce the likelihood of security incidents but also lower the costs and operational impact associated with breaches. They complement detective and corrective controls by creating a strong first line of defense, ensuring that threats are mitigated before they can compromise systems or datA) A layered preventive approach, integrated across people, processes, and technology, is essential for establishing a resilient and secure organizational environment.
Question 65
What is the primary goal of the Biba security model?
A) Data confidentiality
B) Data integrity
C) Availability
D) Accountability
Answer: B) Data integrity
Explanation:
The Biba Integrity Model is a formal security framework designed to ensure the integrity of information by preventing unauthorized or improper modification of datA) While models like Bell-LaPadula focus primarily on confidentiality, Biba emphasizes the accuracy, consistency, and reliability of data throughout its lifecycle. This makes it especially relevant in environments where maintaining trustworthy and precise information is critical, such as financial systems, healthcare databases, or safety-critical applications.
Biba organizes both subjects (users, processes) and objects (data, files) into distinct integrity levels, enforcing strict rules on how information can be accessed or altered based on these levels. Its primary goal is to prevent corruption of high-integrity data by lower-integrity sources and to maintain a clear hierarchy of trust across the system. The model achieves this through two main principles: no write up and no read down.
The no write up rule ensures that a subject cannot write information to a higher integrity level. This prevents less trustworthy entities from contaminating more reliable or critical data, thereby safeguarding the accuracy of key systems. Conversely, the no read down rule prohibits subjects from reading data at a lower integrity level. This prevents high-integrity processes from being influenced or corrupted by less reliable information, ensuring that critical operations are based solely on trusted datA)
Together, these principles create a controlled environment where data integrity is systematically enforced, and any attempt to violate the hierarchy is blockeD) Implementation of the Biba model often involves access control mechanisms, role-based assignments, and auditing processes to monitor adherence to integrity rules. By focusing on the prevention of unauthorized modifications, the Biba Integrity Model helps organizations maintain confidence in their data, supporting regulatory compliance, operational accuracy, and overall system reliability.
Question 66
Which of the following is the first step in risk management?
A) Risk assessment
B) Risk mitigation
C) Risk acceptance
D) Risk transfer
Answer: A) Risk assessment
Explanation:
Risk assessment is the foundational and most critical phase of risk management, providing organizations with a structured understanding of potential threats and vulnerabilities that could impact their assets, operations, and objectives. The primary goal of risk assessment is to identify and evaluate risks to determine overall exposure, enabling informed decisions about prioritizing security measures and allocating resources effectively. By systematically analyzing threats, vulnerabilities, and potential consequences, organizations gain insight into both the likelihood of an incident and its potential impact on business operations.
The process typically begins with identifying and cataloging critical assets, including physical infrastructure, digital systems, intellectual property, and personnel. Next, potential threats—such as cyberattacks, natural disasters, human error, or equipment failures—are assessed alongside vulnerabilities that could be exploiteD) Risk is then calculated as a function of both likelihood and impact, often using qualitative methods, such as expert judgment and scoring systems, or quantitative methods, including statistical models and cost analysis. This dual approach ensures a comprehensive understanding of both tangible and intangible risks.
A thorough risk assessment allows decision-makers to prioritize mitigation strategies, whether by implementing preventive controls, strengthening existing defenses, or planning for rapid response and recovery. It also supports regulatory compliance, business continuity planning, and strategic investment in cybersecurity and operational resilience.
Since technology, threats, and business environments are constantly evolving, regular reassessments are essential to maintain an accurate understanding of risk exposure. Periodic reviews ensure that new vulnerabilities are addressed, emerging threats are considered, and security strategies remain aligned with organizational objectives. By integrating continuous risk assessment into the broader risk management framework, organizations can proactively reduce their exposure, enhance resilience, and make well-informed, strategic decisions to protect assets and sustain operations.
Question 67
Which access control concept requires two or more individuals to complete a sensitive action?
A) Least privilege
B) Separation of duties
C) Need-to-know
D) Role-based access
Answer: B) Separation of duties
Explanation:
Separation of duties (SoD) is a fundamental security and governance principle designed to reduce the risk of fraud, errors, and misuse by dividing critical responsibilities among multiple individuals. By ensuring that no single person has complete control over an essential process, SoD establishes a system of checks and balances that enhances accountability and operational integrity. This approach is particularly important in environments where sensitive transactions, financial operations, or critical system changes are involveD)
A common example of SoD in practice is in financial operations: one employee may be responsible for authorizing a payment, while another executes it. Similarly, in IT environments, one team may develop code while a separate team reviews and deploys it. By dividing responsibilities, organizations prevent any single individual from making unauthorized changes or concealing malicious actions, thereby reducing the likelihood of internal threats and operational mistakes.
Separation of duties is typically enforced through a combination of organizational policies, role-based access control (RBAC), workflow design, and system segregation. Role definitions are structured to ensure that conflicting duties are not assigned to the same individual, while automated systems can restrict access and maintain logs of actions for auditing purposes. Regular reviews and audits further reinforce SoD by verifying that duties remain appropriately segregated and that no individual has acquired excessive privileges over time.
Beyond security, SoD supports regulatory compliance and good governance, demonstrating that an organization has implemented effective internal controls to protect assets, data, and operational processes. Properly applied, SoD not only mitigates risk but also fosters a culture of transparency and accountability. It ensures that critical decisions and operations undergo multiple layers of oversight, contributing to more reliable business practices and a resilient, well-governed operational environment.
Question 68
Which of the following best defines a false positive in security monitoring?
A) A real threat not detected
B) A benign event incorrectly flagged as a threat
C) A system failure due to overload
D) A user intentionally triggering an alert
Answer: B) A benign event incorrectly flagged as a threat
Explanation:
A false positive occurs when a security tool or system incorrectly identifies a benign event, activity, or behavior as malicious. Essentially, the system raises an alert even though no actual threat exists. While false positives indicate that a security solution is sensitive and vigilant, an excessive number can overwhelm security teams, consume valuable resources, and reduce overall operational efficiency. This phenomenon is commonly seen in intrusion detection systems, antivirus programs, and endpoint monitoring solutions, where normal user behavior or routine system operations may inadvertently trigger alarms.
For example, legitimate network traffic, such as a software update or automated backup, might be flagged as an intrusion or malware activity. Similarly, a new application installation or configuration change could be misinterpreted as suspicious behavior, generating alerts that require investigation even though no threat exists. Over time, a high rate of false positives can lead to alert fatigue, where security analysts may start overlooking alerts, potentially missing genuine attacks.
To maintain effective security monitoring, organizations must balance sensitivity (the ability to detect threats) and specificity (the ability to correctly identify non-threats). Regular tuning of security tools is essential, adjusting detection rules and thresholds based on observed patterns, organizational workflows, and operational context. Advanced techniques, such as machine learning and behavioral analytics, can further reduce false positives by learning typical activity patterns and distinguishing anomalies that truly indicate malicious intent. Contextual analysis, including correlating events across multiple systems, also improves accuracy by providing additional evidence before generating an alert.
Effectively managing false positives ensures that security teams focus on genuine threats, improving incident response times, minimizing unnecessary investigations, and optimizing the use of cybersecurity resources. By continuously refining detection mechanisms and leveraging intelligent analytics, organizations can maintain high security vigilance without compromising operational efficiency or overwhelming personnel with misleading alerts.
Question 69
Which backup type captures all selected data every time it runs, regardless of previous backups?
A) Full backup
B) Incremental backup
C) Differential backup
D) Snapshot
Answer: A) Full backup
Explanation:
A full backup is a comprehensive process that copies all selected data from a system, server, or application, regardless of whether the data has changed since the last backup. Because it captures every file, folder, and configuration included in the backup set, a full backup provides a complete snapshot of the data at a specific point in time. This makes restoration straightforward and reliable, as all necessary files are contained in a single backup instance, eliminating the need to combine multiple incremental or differential backups during recovery.
While full backups require more time, storage capacity, and system resources compared to other backup methods, they serve as the foundation for a robust data protection strategy. Many organizations use full backups in combination with incremental or differential backups to balance efficiency and completeness. For instance, a weekly full backup might be supplemented by daily incremental backups, which store only the changes made since the last backup. This approach minimizes storage usage and reduces the time needed for routine backup operations while still ensuring that a full recovery is possible.
Regularly performing full backups enhances data reliability, integrity, and availability, providing organizations with a secure and consistent recovery point in the event of accidental deletion, hardware failure, ransomware attacks, or other disasters. Automated scheduling, secure storage (both on-site and off-site), and encryption further strengthen the effectiveness of full backups by ensuring backups are completed consistently, protected from unauthorized access, and resilient to potential disruptions.
By maintaining a well-planned full backup strategy, organizations can safeguard critical information, reduce downtime, and maintain operational continuity during unexpected events. Full backups are a cornerstone of business continuity and disaster recovery planning, ensuring that essential data can be restored efficiently and accurately when needeD)
Question 70
What is the main purpose of a security audit?
A) To detect and respond to active attacks
B) To ensure compliance with policies and regulations
C) To install new security software
D) To replace outdated systems
Answer: B) To ensure compliance with policies and regulations
Explanation:
A security audit is a systematic and thorough evaluation of an organization’s information security policies, procedures, and controls, conducted to ensure compliance with established standards, regulatory requirements, and internal policies. The primary goal of a security audit is to assess the effectiveness of security measures, identify weaknesses or gaps, and provide actionable recommendations for improvement. By examining technical systems, administrative processes, and physical security measures, audits help organizations understand how well their security posture aligns with best practices and legal obligations.
Security audits can be performed internally by an organization’s security team or externally by independent auditors or regulatory bodies. Internal audits are typically conducted to assess ongoing compliance, monitor risk management efforts, and prepare for external evaluations. External audits, on the other hand, often focus on certification requirements, such as ISO 27001, SOC 2, or HIPAA, or on demonstrating adherence to government or industry regulations. Both types of audits examine a wide range of areas, including access controls, network and system configurations, incident response procedures, data protection policies, and physical security controls, providing a holistic view of the organization’s security posture.
The outcomes of a security audit are valuable for promoting accountability, improving risk management, and guiding strategic decisions related to security investments and process enhancements. By highlighting deficiencies and recommending corrective actions, audits foster a culture of continuous improvement and help prevent potential security breaches. Regularly conducted audits also build stakeholder confidence, ensuring clients, partners, and regulatory authorities that the organization maintains strong and compliant security practices.
In essence, security audits are a critical component of an organization’s overall cybersecurity and governance strategy. They provide transparency, reinforce compliance, support certification efforts, and contribute to operational resilience by ensuring that risks are identified and mitigated before they can cause significant harm.
Question 71
Which concept ensures that information is accessible only to authorized users?
A) Availability
B) Integrity
C) Confidentiality
D) Non-repudiation
Answer: C) Confidentiality
Explanation:
Confidentiality is a fundamental principle of information security that ensures sensitive data is accessible only to authorized individuals or systems, preventing unauthorized disclosure or access. It is a key component of the CIA triad—Confidentiality, Integrity, and Availability—and serves as the foundation for protecting private, proprietary, and classified information. Maintaining confidentiality is critical for safeguarding intellectual property, customer and employee data, trade secrets, financial records, and other sensitive organizational information from misuse or exposure.
Organizations enforce confidentiality through a combination of technical, administrative, and physical measures. Technical controls include encryption, which protects data both at rest and in transit, and access control mechanisms such as role-based access control (RBAC), multi-factor authentication (MFA), and strong password policies. Administrative controls involve policies, procedures, and training programs designed to educate employees about handling sensitive information securely. Physical measures, such as secure facilities, locked storage, and surveillance systems, further prevent unauthorized access to confidential datA)
Classification systems are often implemented to categorize data based on sensitivity levels, guiding how information is handled, shared, and storeD) For example, highly confidential data may require additional layers of protection and limited access, while less sensitive data can be more broadly accessible under controlled conditions.
Protecting confidentiality is not only a matter of organizational policy but also a legal and regulatory requirement. Laws and regulations such as GDPR, HIPAA, and industry-specific compliance standards mandate the protection of sensitive data, and violations can result in significant financial penalties, legal action, and reputational damage. Breaches of confidentiality can also erode customer trust and negatively impact business relationships.
Overall, confidentiality ensures that sensitive information remains private and secure, supporting organizational integrity, compliance, and competitive advantage. By implementing robust confidentiality measures, organizations can reduce risk, maintain trust, and uphold the principles of effective information security management.
Question 72
Which type of social engineering involves impersonating a trusted person to extract confidential information?
A) Baiting
B) Tailgating
C) Pretexting
D) Shoulder surfing
Answer: C) Pretexting
Explanation:
Pretexting is a form of social engineering in which attackers create a fabricated scenario, or “pretext,” to manipulate individuals into divulging sensitive information, such as passwords, account details, or confidential business datA) Unlike phishing, which typically relies on deceptive emails or messages, pretexting often occurs through direct human interaction, including phone calls, in-person conversations, or sometimes even via text messaging. Attackers impersonate trusted figures—such as coworkers, executives, IT staff, or government officials—to gain credibility and reduce suspicion.
The success of pretexting hinges on exploiting human psychology rather than technical vulnerabilities. Attackers may employ various tactics, such as posing as a new employee needing access, claiming to perform urgent system maintenance, or presenting themselves as an authority figure requesting confidential information. By leveraging trust, urgency, or fear, they can pressure individuals into bypassing standard security procedures.
Organizations mitigate pretexting risks through a combination of training, policies, and verification mechanisms. Security awareness programs educate employees on recognizing social engineering tactics, encouraging them to question unexpected requests for sensitive information and report suspicious interactions. Verification procedures, such as callback protocols, multi-factor authentication, and requiring managerial approval for sensitive requests, help ensure that information is only shared with authorized personnel. Identity validation policies, like checking official credentials or confirming requests through secure channels, further reduce exposure.
Cultivating a culture of skepticism and vigilance is critical, as pretexting attacks often bypass even sophisticated technical defenses. By combining awareness, strict procedural safeguards, and a cautious approach to unsolicited requests, organizations can significantly minimize the risk of falling victim to these manipulative attacks. Pretexting demonstrates that even with strong technical security controls, human factors remain a crucial vulnerability that requires proactive management and education.
Question 73
Which term describes the ability to prove that a specific user performed a given action?
A) Accountability
B) Integrity
C) Availability
D) Authentication
Answer: A) Accountability
Explanation:
Accountability is a fundamental principle in information security that ensures all actions within a system or organization can be traced back to the individual or entity responsible for performing them. It provides transparency and establishes a clear chain of responsibility, allowing organizations to monitor, verify, and enforce adherence to policies and procedures. Accountability is closely linked with non-repudiation, meaning that users cannot deny their actions once performed, which is critical for maintaining trust and integrity in digital and physical operations.
Implementing accountability relies on several key mechanisms. Strong authentication processes, such as multi-factor authentication, ensure that users are accurately identified before accessing systems or performing sensitive operations. Logging and audit trails record actions, including file access, configuration changes, or system transactions, providing a detailed historical record of activity. Regular auditing and monitoring of these logs help detect policy violations, unauthorized access, or suspicious behavior, enabling timely intervention.
Accountability is vital for investigations, compliance, and legal obligations. In regulated industries, such as finance, healthcare, and government, organizations must demonstrate that actions are attributable and traceable to comply with standards like HIPAA, PCI DSS, or ISO 27001. In the event of a security incident or data breach, accountable systems provide forensic evidence necessary to identify culprits, assess the scope of damage, and implement corrective measures.
Beyond compliance, accountability also serves as a deterrent against misuse or negligent behavior. When users know their actions are being monitored and recorded, they are more likely to follow security policies and procedures. In addition, it strengthens governance by reinforcing operational transparency, building stakeholder confidence, and supporting the overall security posture of the organization. Effective accountability ensures that all activities are traceable, verifiable, and aligned with both organizational objectives and regulatory requirements, forming a critical pillar of a robust security framework.
Question 74
Which process focuses on restoring IT operations and data access after a disaster?
A) Business continuity
B) Disaster recovery
C) Incident response
D) Risk assessment
Answer: B) Disaster recovery
Explanation:
Disaster recovery (DR) is a critical component of an organization’s overall risk management strategy, focused specifically on restoring IT infrastructure, systems, and data access following disruptive events such as cyberattacks, hardware failures, power outages, or natural disasters. While business continuity addresses the continuation of essential operations across the organization, disaster recovery concentrates on the technical and operational aspects of quickly resuming normal IT functionality to minimize downtime and data loss.
Effective disaster recovery planning involves several key elements. Regular backups, whether full, incremental, or differential, ensure that critical data can be restored to a recent state. Redundancy measures, such as mirrored servers, clustered databases, or cloud-based failover solutions, help maintain system availability even when primary resources fail. Alternate site strategies, including hot, warm, or cold sites, provide pre-prepared environments to resume operations if primary facilities are compromiseD)
Disaster recovery plans must be carefully documented, detailing roles, responsibilities, procedures, and recovery objectives, such as Recovery Time Objectives (RTOs) and Recovery Point Objectives (RPOs). Regular testing of these plans—through simulations, failover drills, and tabletop exercises—is essential to verify effectiveness, identify gaps, and improve response readiness. Clear communication protocols ensure that IT teams, management, and stakeholders are informed and coordinated during incidents.
By implementing a comprehensive disaster recovery strategy, organizations can limit operational disruptions, prevent significant data loss, and maintain stakeholder confidence. DR not only safeguards technical resources but also supports regulatory compliance and resilience in the face of unexpected events. When integrated with broader business continuity planning, disaster recovery enables organizations to recover swiftly, maintain critical services, and ensure long-term operational stability, even under adverse conditions.
Question 75
Which of the following describes a vulnerability?
A) A method used to exploit a weakness
B) A weakness that can be exploited
C) The damage caused by an attack
D) The probability of an attack occurring
Answer: B) A weakness that can be exploited
Explanation:
A vulnerability is a flaw or weakness in software, hardware, systems, or organizational processes that can be exploited by threats to compromise the confidentiality, integrity, or availability of information. Vulnerabilities may exist due to design flaws, coding errors, configuration mistakes, or outdated software, and they do not inherently cause harm. However, when exploited by attackers, they can lead to data breaches, unauthorized access, service disruptions, or other security incidents. Common examples include unpatched operating systems, weak or reused passwords, misconfigured network devices, and insecure application code.
Identifying vulnerabilities is a critical step in maintaining a secure environment. Organizations use vulnerability assessments, penetration testing, and automated scanning tools to discover weaknesses before attackers can exploit them. Once identified, vulnerabilities must be prioritized based on their severity, exploitability, and potential impact on the organization’s assets. Patch management, secure coding practices, configuration hardening, and continuous monitoring are key strategies for mitigating vulnerabilities effectively.
Vulnerability management is a proactive, ongoing process that integrates identification, evaluation, remediation, and verification. By addressing vulnerabilities promptly, organizations reduce the attack surface available to malicious actors, prevent exploitation, and maintain system integrity. This process also supports compliance with industry standards and regulations, which often mandate regular vulnerability assessments and timely remediation.
In today’s rapidly evolving threat landscape, effective vulnerability management is essential for safeguarding critical assets, protecting sensitive data, and maintaining business continuity. Organizations that proactively identify and remediate vulnerabilities enhance their overall security posture, minimize operational risks, and build resilience against both known and emerging cyber threats.
Question 76
Which type of attack involves intercepting and possibly altering communication between two parties without their knowledge?
A) Replay attack
B) Man-in-the-Middle attack
C) Spoofing attack
D) Denial of Service attack
Answer: B) Man-in-the-Middle attack
Explanation:
A Man-in-the-Middle (MitM) attack is a type of cyberattack where an attacker secretly intercepts, relays, and potentially alters communications between two parties who believe they are directly communicating with each other. In these attacks, the attacker positions themselves between the sender and recipient, allowing them to eavesdrop on sensitive information, manipulate data, or impersonate one of the parties to steal credentials, financial data, or confidential business communications. MitM attacks exploit weaknesses in network protocols, unsecured connections, or poorly configured devices, and they can occur over wired or wireless networks.
Common MitM techniques include ARP spoofing, where attackers trick devices into sending network traffic through the attacker’s system; DNS poisoning, which redirects users to malicious websites without their knowledge; and HTTPS stripping, where secure encrypted connections are downgraded to plaintext, exposing data during transmission. Attackers may also combine these techniques with social engineering or phishing to increase the effectiveness of their attacks.
Mitigating MitM risks requires a combination of technological and behavioral strategies. Strong encryption protocols like TLS/SSL ensure that intercepted data remains unreadable to attackers. Mutual authentication and secure key exchange protocols prevent unauthorized parties from impersonating legitimate users. Using virtual private networks (VPNs) encrypts communications over untrusted networks, while network monitoring and intrusion detection systems help identify unusual traffic patterns indicative of a MitM attempt.
From a user perspective, awareness is critical. Avoiding untrusted Wi-Fi networks, verifying website certificates, and being cautious about sharing sensitive information online reduce the likelihood of successful attacks. Organizations must also maintain up-to-date security patches, configure devices securely, and enforce strict network policies. By combining these technical and procedural measures, MitM attacks can be effectively prevented, protecting data confidentiality, integrity, and trust between communicating parties.
Question 77
Which security concept ensures that changes to a system are tracked, approved, and documented?
A) Change management
B) Configuration management
C) Audit control
D) Access management
Answer: A) Change management
Explanation:
Change management is a structured and systematic process designed to control modifications to systems, networks, applications, or IT infrastructure, ensuring that all changes are properly authorized, thoroughly tested, and carefully documented before implementation. This discipline is critical for maintaining system integrity, stability, and reliability, as it helps prevent unauthorized or untested changes that could introduce vulnerabilities, operational disruptions, or security incidents.
The change management process typically begins with the submission of a formal change request, which is then subjected to detailed impact analysis to assess potential effects on system performance, security, and business operations. This is followed by an approval workflow, ensuring that changes are reviewed by appropriate stakeholders and authorized by management or designated change advisory boards. Once approved, changes undergo rigorous testing in controlled environments to validate functionality and mitigate any potential risks. After successful testing, changes are implemented, often during scheduled maintenance windows to minimize disruption, and are subsequently monitoreD) Post-implementation reviews are conducted to confirm that objectives were met and to identify lessons learned for future improvements.
From a security perspective, change management is essential for reducing insider threats, minimizing accidental misconfigurations, and preventing configuration drift, which can create gaps in security controls. By enforcing clear policies and maintaining detailed documentation, it ensures accountability, traceability, and compliance with regulatory frameworks such as ISO 27001, NIST, or other industry standards. Effective change management not only safeguards systems but also supports forensic investigations in the event of security incidents by providing a comprehensive audit trail of all modifications.
Ultimately, disciplined change management strengthens operational resilience, reduces downtime, and ensures that every modification contributes positively to the organization’s IT environment. By combining careful planning, rigorous testing, and structured governance, organizations can maintain high levels of reliability, security, and efficiency, ensuring that IT operations remain aligned with strategic goals and compliance requirements.
Question 78
Which of the following is an example of a physical security control?
A) Encryption
B) Firewall
C) Security guard
D) Antivirus software
Answer: C) Security guard
Explanation:
A security guard is a prime example of a physical security control, serving as a proactive measure to protect an organization’s assets by preventing unauthorized physical access. Physical security controls are designed to safeguard people, facilities, equipment, and critical infrastructure from threats such as theft, vandalism, natural disasters, sabotage, or espionage. Common measures include locks, fences, turnstiles, access cards, CCTV surveillance, alarm systems, and biometric scanners. Security guards complement these controls by adding a dynamic human element, actively monitoring entrances, verifying identities, enforcing access policies, and responding in real-time to incidents or suspicious behavior.
Physical security is a foundational component of an organization’s broader security strategy because, without it, digital safeguards can be easily bypasseD) For instance, if an attacker gains physical access to servers or workstations, they can manipulate, steal, or destroy sensitive data regardless of cybersecurity measures. This underscores the importance of implementing layered defenses that integrate physical, technical, and administrative controls to create a comprehensive security posture.
Modern organizations enhance physical security through a combination of surveillance systems, controlled entry points, visitor management programs, and security patrols. Integration of monitoring technologies with real-time reporting allows for greater situational awareness, rapid incident response, and ongoing assessment of vulnerabilities. By coordinating physical security measures with IT security and organizational policies, organizations can effectively reduce risks, protect both human and digital assets, and ensure continuity of operations during emergencies or attacks.
Question 79
What is the main purpose of multifactor authentication (MFA)?
A) To simplify user logins
B) To replace passwords completely
C) To increase authentication security using multiple verification methods
D) To provide anonymous access
Answer: C) To increase authentication security using multiple verification methods
Explanation:
Multifactor Authentication (MFA) is a critical security mechanism that strengthens user authentication by requiring two or more independent verification factors before granting access to systems, applications, or sensitive datA) These factors typically include something the user knows, such as a password or PIN; something the user has, such as a hardware token, smart card, or mobile device; and something the user is, such as a fingerprint, facial recognition, or other biometric identifiers. By combining multiple factors, MFA significantly reduces the likelihood of unauthorized access, even if one factor—most commonly a password—is compromiseD)
MFA serves as an essential defense against a wide range of cyber threats, including phishing attacks, credential theft, brute-force attempts, and account takeovers. It adds a critical layer of security by ensuring that possession of a single piece of information or device is insufficient to gain access. Organizations increasingly rely on MFA in high-risk environments such as online banking, corporate networks, cloud services, and healthcare systems to protect sensitive data and maintain regulatory compliance.
Modern implementations often employ adaptive or risk-based MFA, which adjusts authentication requirements based on contextual factors such as user location, device reputation, access time, and behavior patterns. This dynamic approach balances security with usability, reducing friction for trusted users while maintaining strong protection against potential threats.
Question 80
Which document defines the security objectives, responsibilities, and controls for protecting organizational assets?
A) Risk assessment report
B) Security policy
C) Business impact analysis
D) Incident response plan
Answer: B) Security policy
Explanation:
A security policy is a formal, authoritative document that articulates an organization’s overall approach to protecting its critical assets, including data, IT infrastructure, and personnel. It establishes the framework for how information security is managed across the organization by defining clear objectives, roles, responsibilities, acceptable use standards, and enforcement mechanisms. Security policies serve as the foundation for all subordinate documents such as standards, procedures, and guidelines, ensuring a cohesive and consistent approach to safeguarding information.
The primary purpose of a security policy is to align security initiatives with the organization’s business objectives while promoting accountability and consistent decision-making. By clearly communicating expectations for behavior and delineating what constitutes acceptable and unacceptable practices, security policies foster a culture of security awareness throughout the organization. They also support compliance with legal, regulatory, and industry requirements, including widely recognized frameworks like ISO 27001, NIST, GDPR, or HIPAA, depending on the sector.
Effective security policies are living documents, requiring regular review and updates to address evolving threats, emerging technologies, and changes in organizational structure or business processes. A well-maintained policy ensures that security measures remain relevant, practical, and enforceable. Beyond compliance, security policies enable organizations to proactively manage risks, prevent data breaches, and minimize the impact of security incidents.
